Non-invasive monitoring of atomic reactions to detect structural failure

ABSTRACT

The method and device to ensure the safety of people&#39;s life and health is based on the measurements of an intensity of spontaneous electromagnetic radiation caused by a deformation from a structure or a device, a nucleation and a growth of plant cells and living organisms; calculating an energy stored in a portion of a structure or cells based on the measured intensity; performing a comparison of the energy stored in the portion of the structure with a critical value for the structure and pathological changes in the cells; and indicate a potential failure of the structure or the level of pathological changes based on the performed comparison.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to and incorporates by reference forall purposes the full disclosure of U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 62/674,107, filed May 21, 2018, entitled “METHOD AND SYSTEM FORNON-DESTRUCTIVE REMOTE MONITORING THE WEAR OF STRUCTURES AND DEVICES.”

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to embodiments to ensure the safety oflife and human activity on natural and man-made objects, regardless oftheir size, shape, composition, purpose and nature of externalinfluences. This goal is achieved by the possibility of experimentalcontinuous or periodic monitoring the energy of dynamic processes due tothe atomic reaction, and accessing its magnitude using equations, inorder to stop operation before the accumulated energy reaches a criticalvalue. Electromagnetic, including X-ray, radiation accompanying atomicreactions in inorganic and organic objects is used to analyze theprocesses of wear and aging.

An experimental study carried out by the inventor showed that the methodbased on the analysis of atomic reactions is applicable in all areas ofhuman activity. Analysis of atomic reactions leading to wear, aging,destruction of structures and devices; aging, pathological changes anddeath of plants and organs of a living organism are performed in theinvention from the standpoint of quantum electrodynamics, which is anaccurate physical theory that ensured the development of naturalscience, technology and medicine.

BACKGROUND

Numerous structures in various contexts are relied upon for the safetyof individuals, not to mention for other reasons. For example, people inan airplane rely on the integrity of the structures that make up theairplane. People crossing a bridge by car, truck, or other vehicle relyon the structural integrity of the bridge. Rail passengers rely on theintegrity of the rails and structures that make up the trains on whichthey ride. Despite efforts to prevent structural failure, structuresnevertheless do fail, too often resulting in injury and death.Prediction of structural failure has proven to be a difficult problem.Cracks in structures can be difficult to detect and often appear withoutwarning after normal or even abnormal use.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The experimental basis of the invention is the next use of anelectromagnetic impulse for practical purposes. The number of suchapplications is huge. They cover almost all modern technical devicesthat people use. The first use was found by a primitive man, when,striking a piece of iron with a flint, he extracted a spark and lit afire, repeating a natural phenomenon called lightning. Consequently,impact and friction give rise to electromagnetic impulse.

A lightning rod, invented by B. Franklin, was used as the second exampleof the use of a spark. The utility of this invention lies in the factthat the lightning rod increases the rate of energy dissipation in athundercloud, the accumulation of which is caused by the impact(friction) of ice crystals.

The amplification of an electromagnetic pulse in a laser is due to thefact that in the process of pumping the accumulation rate exceeds therate of energy dissipation. Energy accumulation is due to the fact thatsome of the atoms, having absorbed energy, moved to a higher energylevel and do not emit it during a certain time interval, which is calledthe lifetime of the metastable state.

If there are more atoms at the metastable level than at the bottom, thena random pulse emitted by one atom, called a photon, can stimulate theemission of other atoms in the same direction, with the same energy,phase and polarization. The energy of such photons is summed.

Such a phenomenon, called stimulated or induced radiation, has noanalogs beyond the limits of quantum systems.

The theoretical basis of the method proposed in the invention is theinventor's hypothesis that the loss of integrity of a solid, i.e. theformation of pores, cracks and destruction is due to the formation oflocal regions of metastable atoms, the stimulated emission of which,being absorbed by other atoms, is sufficient to break the bond betweenthese atoms. Such a local group of atoms is called a destruction domain.

The transition of atoms from the normal to the metastable state is dueto the absorption of photons, the birth of which occurs as a result ofthe transformation of the mechanical energy of deformation into theelectromagnetic one.

All dynamic processes are initially due to the interaction of atoms,which are attracted to each other, but repel at some distance becausethe charges of all atomic nuclei are positive and the electron shellsare negative. Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the forces of attractionare equal to repulsive forces.

It is proved that all processes in nature are caused by four types ofinteraction: strong, which is taken as 1; electromagnetic equal to1/137; weak, equal to 1/10¹² and gravitational, equal to 1/10⁴⁰.Mechanical interaction in nature is absent not only between individualatoms, but also macroscopic bodies. This seemingly paradoxicalconclusion is due to the fact that a layer of electrons with a thicknessof up to two nanometers is formed above the surface of a solid. Theconvergence of bodies at this distance is accompanied by a change in theelectric field and the appearance of a varying magnetic field. These twofields propagate in the form of an electromagnetic wave (photon).

The glow of two bodies caused by friction, called triboluminescence,serves to confirm this mechanism. This means that we can limit ourselveson the Earth by electromagnetic interaction in the analysis of dynamicprocesses.

Dynamic processes caused by atomic reactions provide for the safeoperation of elements of structures and devices until changes occur inthem, called fatigue, wear, or aging.

The term “fatigue” was introduced in 1839, it was widely used afterWohler's work, published in 1860-1870. This term and the method ofconstructing S-N curves are still used both in State Standards and inscientific research.

This term cannot be considered a physical parameter, since for 150 yearsthe quantitative value of fatigue and the method of its measurement havenot been proposed.

Modern mechanics of strength and destruction are based on the hypothesisthat damage to materials, such as fatigue cracks, is due to the emissionof elastic energy accumulated in stress concentrators. The mainparameter of the equations proposed for the analysis of the experimentalresults is the stress intensity factor (SIF), K=σ√{square root over(m)}.

The dimension of this parameter in the International System of UnitsPam^(1/2).

Currently, a number of methods and computer programs are used, the mainparameters of which are stress intensity factors, for example, NASGRO,AFGROW, FRANC2D. The disadvantage of the experiment designed toimplement these methods is its low efficiency. The analysis of suchmethods is performed using for example of AFGROW Release 5.03.03.23,which was used to study the causes of cracking in the fuselage. Thefuselage panels were deformed with a period of 25-30 seconds. The totalnumber of cyclic tests for each of the nine panels ranged from 2.5 to4.3 million. Therefore, the experiment was lasted 730 working weeks. Thecrack of length 1925 mm was formed in one of the panels, but forecastingthe time and place of cracking by these methods is impossible, since theequations do not contain time as a parameter and damage is detectedafter hundreds of hours.

${\frac{da}{dN} = {C\;\Delta\; K^{n}}},$

Consider as an example the Paris-Erdogan equation where da is theelongation of the crack, dN is the increase in the number of testcycles, the C-coefficient of proportionality, which has the dimensionm/cycle, K is the stress intensity factor, ΔK=K_(max)−K_(min).

N is the exponent. The NASGRO equation reduces to the Paris-Erdoganequation. Analysis of this equation is necessary to show the errors theycontain.

The left side of the equation, called the crack growth rate, has thesame dimension as C. Consequently, the dimensions of the left and rightsides are different.

Analysis of the causes of crack formation, 4.8 m long, in the oilpipeline [See: M. D. Chapetti, at al., Int. J. of Fatigue, (2002), 24,21-28] was performed using the Paris-Erdogan equation. The authors gaveone of the solutions: n=6, C=3.818.10⁻¹⁵ m/cycle, which contains grosserrors: the cycle in which the elongation of the crack corresponds tothe size of the atomic nucleus is meaningless, as is the measurement oflength with an accuracy of 10⁻¹⁸ meters. But there are many suchexamples.

The NASGRO equation, which differs from the Paris-Erdogan equation onlyby a numerical factor, contains the same errors.

The gross errors of the modern theory of strength and destruction areassociated with the neglect of the achievements of quantum theory, onthe basis of which electron and atomic force microscopes,diffractometers, and field ion microscopes are created. The authors ofthe articles, using them, try to describe from the point of view ofclassical mechanics the results obtained using, for example, theelectron backscattering effect.

The inventor's hypothesis and the method based on it is aquantum-mechanical interpretation of the idea of D. K. Maxwell that thepotential deformation energy U is equal to the sum of two energies:U=U ₁ +U ₂   (1),where U₁ it is caused by symmetric compression and U₂ is caused bydistortion without compressions. [See: J. C Maxwell, Letter to WilliamThomson, 18 Dec. 1856, The Scientific Letters &Papers of James ClerkMaxwell, v. 1, 1846-1862, 487-491.]

Equation (1) forms the basis of the modern energy theory of strength.The energy U₂, the radiation of which leads to destruction, isconsidered in this theory as elastic energy, is stored in stressconcentrators.

Description of the Experimental Research

The emission of electrons and X-rays during the destruction of theadhesive layer and the separation of thin films was observed repeatedly[See: V. V. Karasev et al. DAN USSR, (1953), 88, 777-78; C. G. Camara etal., Nature, (2008) 455, 1089-1092]. It was assumed that the emission ofX-rays was caused by discharge in gases.

The inventor's hypothesis is that X-rays are the cause of the damage andthe consequence. Such a conclusion seems paradoxical, but only from thestandpoint of classical mechanics. It is due to the quantum nature ofelectromagnetic waves and the wave properties of electrons.

The deformation of compression, tension, bending, torsion of the samplesand their destruction was carried out on a special device made on thebasis of a vice. Shear deformation and destruction of the samples wascarried out when drilling or putting the sample with a rotatinggrindstone. In all cases, at room temperature and liquid nitrogentemperature, both direct and fragmental radiation from destruction wasrecorded.

A KODAK 400 color film or FUJIFILM SUPERIA X-TRA 400 color film wasplaced in a container that was opaque to visible and ultraviolet rays.The container was irradiated with a stream of particles that were caughtby a sticky film located on its surface. The frames were diaphragmedusing lead tiles ⅔″ thick (16.3 mm). A stream of particles from glass,alloys of iron, copper, aluminum, and zinc is directed above the surfaceof the container or outside of it to study direct electromagneticradiation at the moment of destruction.

The absorption of electromagnetic radiation and luminescence wasinvestigated using screens located on the surface of the container(FIGS. 1H, 1I, 2F, 2J) and inside it (FIG. 2K).

X-ray radiation of varying intensity was recorded in all experimentsbefore destruction and from fragments after destruction. At the time ofdestruction, X-ray was not recorded. This fact confirms the idea thatthe energy of this radiation is absorbed by the atoms between which thebond was broken.

The delay of radiation of particles as a result of destruction,calculated from the length of the span and velocity is 1.6-0.3 μs. Thisfact suggests that this energy of metastable atoms was not stimulated.

All experiments confirmed the inventor's hypothesis that X-rays cause abreak between atoms, leading to a loss of integrity. The formation ofregions with increased stress and the delayed emission of photons is aconsequence of the change in the condition of dynamic equilibrium,caused by a change in the electronic structure of atoms in a localregion.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application publication withcolor drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and paymentof the necessary fee.

The present invention covers a wide range of dynamic processes ininorganic objects, investigated in experiments No. 1 to No. 36, and inthe growing pine-No. 37, in the roots of the growing strawberry-No. 38,and in human organs: the brain-No. 39, the spine-No. 40, the loin No.41, and the chest No. 42.

The results of the experiment are shown in the table “Experimental studyof X-rays emissions” chart.

FIG. 1A illustrates the moment of a copper plate rupture fixed in theupper and lower parts when it is stretched. Radiation in the upper andlower halves as a result of deformation before and after destruction.

FIG. 1B illustrates an internal crack-like defect in a steel beam causedby an impact.

FIG. 1C illustrates the moment of formation of a crack in a cobblestone,(dark region), divided into two parts during a sudden cooling from atemperature of 500° C. down to 12° C.

FIG. 1D illustrates the moment of destruction of a high-strength steelrod. The rod fixed in the upper and lower parts was destroyed in thecentral part by the movement of the piston from left to right. Thephotograph illustrates the distribution of luminous regions not only inthe metal, but also in the air space caused by retarded radiation fromfragments formed after the destruction.

FIG. 1E illustrates the moment of formation of two cracks in a glassplate cooled in liquid nitrogen during a point impact.

FIG. IF illustrates the moment of rupture of the top hole in the placeof attachment of the aluminum plate when it is stretched.

FIG. 1G illustrates the moment of partial rupture of the upper righthole at the place of attachment of the aluminum plate, similar to theprevious one, but fixed at two points during its stretching. Theexperiment was terminated before the plate was broken.

FIG. 1H illustrates irradiation of a Pb—Sn alloy wire, the thickness ofwhich varies from 3 mm to 0.004 mm, by radiation from particles formedafter the destruction of steel. Exposure time 10 minutes.

FIG. 1I illustrates irradiation of the same sample for 30 minutes.

A container with photographic film was placed under a steel bar 1.55″thick, on the upper surface of which one blow was struck with a hammer.FIG. 2A illustrates X-rays radiation recorded by the photographic film.

FIGS. 2B-2H illustrate the X-rays emitted by an impact with the tip ofan ax (FIG. 2D) on the surface of a 4×9.5 I-steel beam, fixed byphotographic film located on the opposite surface at a distance of 4″from the impact point. FIG. 2B illustrates the X-ray radiation recordedon a film located on the left butt at a distance of 14″ from the impactpoint. FIG. 2H illustrates the X-ray radiation recorded on the filmlocated on the right butt at a distance of the impact point 70.″ Note.Only some frames, located between the point of impact and the butts areshown.

FIG. 2I illustrates the dark stripe of an ax striking a wooden rod andthe green response 0.4″ to the left of it. The most remote response islocated on the right at a distance of 11.4″ and is shown in FIG. 2E.

Frame 2J illustrates the luminescence of a steel washer excited by beamsemitted from particles generated by the destruction of a copper plate.

A fragment of the hacksaw blade 0.5 mm thick, shown in FIG. 2K wasirradiated with X-rays from particles of the same alloy formed afterdestruction. The photo shows intense X-ray absorption.

Three photos, shown in FIGS. 2M, 2N, and 2O, illustrate X-rays fromstrawberry roots. FIG. 2P illustrates the luminescence of a steel washerlocated on the surface of the container when irradiated from particlesformed upon contact of a copper alloy plate with a rotating grindingstone; FIG. 2L illustrates the luminescence of a Pb—Sn alloy wirelocated inside a container when irradiated from particles formed uponcontact of a steel plate with a rotating grinding stone.

The photos shown in—FIGS. 3-10 illustrate the X-ray radiation thatoccurred during the process:

solidification of molten plastics—FIG. 3A,

solidification of molten silumin—FIG. 3B,

solidification of molten aluminum alloy 7075-T651 —FIG. 3C,

destruction of flagstone at bending—FIGS. 3D and 3E, and impact—FIG. 3F,

drilling holes in concrete—FIG. 4A,

luminescence in the X-ray of a steel washer irradiated with radiationfrom particles of a copper alloy after destruction—FIG. 4B,

welding steel parts—FIG. 4C,

pine growth—FIGS. 4D, 4E, and 4F,

battery discharge FIGS. 4G, 4H, and 4I,

chemical reaction of soda and vinegar FIG. 4J,

chemical reaction between iron alloy and electrolyte FIGS. 4K and 4L,

copper alloy corrosion—FIG. 5A,

steel corrosion—FIGS. 5B, 5C, 5D, and 5E,

some areas of the brain of the inventor—FIGS. 5F, 5G, 5H, and 5I,

some areas of the spine of the inventor—FIG. 6,

some areas of the back of the inventor—FIGS. 7A-7F; friction of aluminumcontainer loaded with flagstone and asphalt—FIGS. 7G-7I,

some areas of the cell in the heart and lungs of the inventor—FIG.8A-8I.,

at impact of a stone with mass 15 kg, which fell from a height of 5 monto the surface of the water in the container filled with flagstone, inwhich the film was placed U-shaped at the bottom and up along the sidesurface—FIGS. 9A-9I, and

hitting the stone in the same experiment, but the second film was placedon a circle on the outer surface of the container—FIGS. 10A-10I.

72 Photos shown in—FIGS. 11-16, are of particular interest, since theyare obtained by X-ray radiation caused by the movement of a locomotiveby rail road.

FIGS. 11A-11R illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the sleeper between the railsperpendicular to them.

FIGS. 12A-12L illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the web of the rail. Locomotivewas stopped three meters before the film.

FIGS. 13A-13I illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the web of the rail, but in thesnow.

FIGS. 14A-14L illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the rail foot.

FIGS. 15A-15L illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the rail web after the passage ofa locomotive in the forward and reverse direction.

FIGS. 16A-16H illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a photographicfilm placed in a container located on the frame of the locomotive.

FIGS. 17A-17F illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on a film placedin a container located three meters from the railway, which was exposedfor two days. FIGS. 17G-17I illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on aphotographic film placed in a container 5, 9, 26 mm from the bottomsurface of a 6 mm thick steel plate caused by an ax hit on the topsurface; FIGS. 17J-17L illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on aphotographic film placed in a container located 15, 18, and 21 mm fromthe surface of this plate caused by a hammer impact on the butt.

FIGS. 18A-18N illustrate the X-ray radiation recorded on 14 frames offilm, located in a container spirally on the surface of a cylinder withice, in the center of which water vapor was passed through a tube havingsmaller diameter.

FIGS. 19A-19X illustrate the X-rays due to the deformation of the railas the locomotive moves while performing the control experiment.

FIG. 20 illustrates the formation of three types of electromagnetic,including X-ray, radiation. Photos shown in FIGS. 20A-20H are used todemonstrate for the result of atomic processes during which theformation of pores, cracks and fracture occurs;

FIGS. 20I-20P, are characteristic not only of the processes occurringduring deformation, but also of those that caused the growth of plantsand the vital functions of human organs.

FIG. 21 illustrates the dependence of the crack length in a rotatingcompressor disk on rotational energy.

FIG. 22 illustrates the use of the method proposed in the invention fora comparative assessment of the danger of two cracks formed to the rightand left of the rivet hole A40 in an experimental study of the fuselagepanel of the Boeing 737-232 (B727).

FIG. 23 illustrates the process of the formation of a crack to the leftof the rivet hole A23 in an experimental study of another fuselage panelof the same aircraft.

FIG. 24 illustrates a scheme for measuring the intensity ofelectromagnetic radiation of structures and devices.

FIG. 25 illustrates a diagram of an experimental study of rail X-raysradiation during locomotive movement.

FIG. 26 is an illustrative, simplified block diagram of a computingdevice that can be used to practice at least one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The experimental study carried out by the inventor not only refutedconventional energy source hypotheses but also indicated the need toidentify areas that radiate or absorb energy.

The final table of X-ray research results, is based on an analysis of836 photographs obtained from experimental studies of the deformationand fracture of various materials, including 234 photographs recordedduring locomotive movement. X-rays were observed in all materialsstudied, regardless of their composition and structure, in all dynamicprocesses in inorganic and organic materials, including cells of aliving organism. This fact allows us to conclude that the proposedmethod is universal.

The difference between the number of tests and the number of photographsis due to the fact that in some trials more than forty photographs wereobserved at the same time, in other cases when the intensity ofradiation was low, for example, 8-15 drills were required to get oneframe. However, each photograph is not random—it was obtained todemonstrate the application of the method on each specific technologicaloperation. Experts in each industry can perform similar experiments on aplanned program.

FIG. 1A shows that the radiation in both upper and lower parts wascaused by the deformation as before, as well as after destruction.There's no radiation at the moment of destruction because all the energywas used to break the connection between the atoms. Radiation in thelower part is caused by the transition of the electrons from themetastable level to the normal one, excluding the atoms, which weren'tused in the process of the formation of the impulse that resulted in acrack.

FIG. 1D. The photograph illustrates the distribution of luminous regionsnot only in the metal, but also in the air space caused by delayedradiation from fragments formed after destruction. Thee dark region inthe middle part of the rod indicates the absence of metastable atomswith increased energy in it. The experiment indicates that stressconcentrators exist, but they are the result of changes in the energystate of local regions.

FIG. 1F. The plate had two notches, the right of which is visible in thephoto. We see that the upper part of the plate has a red tint,indicating that the frequency of X-ray photons is lower than thefrequency of those photons that are emitted in the central part. A cleardistribution of luminous regions characterizes the distribution ofmetastable atoms, the detailed study of which is of particularimportance for understanding the processes of destruction and the designof the element of a structure or device

Pb—Sn alloy wire with a diameter of 3 mm flattened to a thickness of0.004 mm was irradiated with radiation from steel particles formed uponcontact with a rotating grinding stone. Photo shown in FIG. 1Hillustrates the result obtained by irradiation for 10 minutes. FIG. 1I,illustrate irradiation for 30 minutes. This experiment allows toconclude that the energy of photons emitted from steel exceeded 100 keV.

Photos shown in FIGS. 2A-2J demonstrate high penetrating power of X-raysin metal and wood, caused by an impact. But the same rays emitted fromthe particles, intensely absorbed by the metal, cause luminescence orheating. This phenomenon, called the inventor of self-emissivetransparency, has been observed for the first time and was nottheoretically predicted. The number of experiments performed by theinventor for verification is so large that it excludes the possibilityof error. The name given by the inventor is similar to self-inducedtransparency, which was theoretically predicted and experimentallyconfirmed using a femtosecond laser. The lack of a theoreticalexplanation of the observed phenomenon does not exclude the possibilityof its use in practice.

Photos shown in the application characterizes the distribution of theintensity and frequency of the emission spectrum causing luminescence.The central part is white in all cases while the color of theluminescence of the peripheral regions is more specific for lowerexcitation frequencies. This happens due to the peculiarity of X-rayradiation. An electron removed from a deeper energy level may bereplaced not by a free electron, but by an electron from a level above.White color indicates a cascade transition of electrons from higher tolower levels.

Of particular interest are the six photographs shown in FIG. 4g -FIG. 4l.

The container with the photo film was placed under the PRO ECL series 29battery, which was discharged during the day with a current of 1 ampere.The photographs of FIGS. 4G and 4H illustrate X-rays in the anoderegion. FIG. 4I illustrates X-rays in the cathode region. A similarphenomenon is demonstrated by FIG. 5F, obtained in the study ofradiation due to biological processes in the brain of the inventor. Thephoto illustrates the operation of the hearing aid battery, the currentstrength of which is thousands of times less.

60 g of baking soda in a cylindrical beaker placed on a container werepoured with vinegar until the chemical reaction completely ceased. FIG.4J illustrates the X-rays due to the reaction.

This fact indicates that dynamic processes caused by atomic reactionsare accompanied not only by the excitation of valence electrons that areparticipants in chemical reactions, but also by the excitation ofelectrons from deeper levels, the transition to which is the cause ofthe of X-ray photons emission.

The experiment performed to detect defects in rails and locomotive is ofparticular importance, demonstrating unlimited possibilities forobtaining important information about dynamic processes occurring indifferent parts of the rail and locomotive.

Five films located on different sections of the rail illustrate theappearance of similar and different energy emitters. FIGS. 11A-11Rillustrate the X-ray radiation detected by a film located between therails on the sleeper perpendicular to the rails. The radiation is causedby the deformation of the rails with a single pass locomotive over thefilm. Intense radiation recorded on FIGS. 11A and 11B on the one hand,and FIGS. 11Q and 11R on the other hand, is caused by deformation ofrails and fastenings to the sleeper. A clearly defined luminous channelis fixed on FIGS. 11C-11P. The observed phenomenon is of practicalinterest, as on FIG. 11B there was one fixing defect, while on FIG. 11Qsix such defects and a small luminous area on the bottom of the framewere recorded. A similar area is observed in FIG. 110.

FIG. 12A-12L illustrates the X-ray radiation recorded by the filmlocated on the rail web in the place in front of which the locomotivestopped, not reaching three meters. “Fan-like” radiation, fixed at FIGS.12B, 12E, 12F, 12H, 12J, and 12K, is identical with that recorded inFIGS. 11K and 11Q. The formation of such radiation is due to snow, thatis, water. Such luminous regions are observed in FIG. 13, FIG. 14, FIG.15.

“Fan-like” radiation was detected in 55 photographs obtained bycondensation of steam on the ice surface and its melting, corrosion ofalloys in aqueous solution containing chlorine, plant growth, bodyimpact on the water surface, destruction of flagstone, and deformationof the rail on which surface was snow, and from the organs of a livingorganism. The nature of the radiation indicates that it occurred on thesurface as a result of breaking the bond between the oxygen and hydrogenatoms forming the water molecule, and their subsequent ionization. Thesecond stage is the formation of compounds, occurred as a result ofexothermic reactions. The mechanism of chemical reactions with catalystswas discovered by G. Ertl [See: G. Ertl, Nobel Lecture, Reaction atSurfaces: From Atoms to Complexity, December, 2007]. Photographs of theoxidation of carbon monoxide 2CO+O₂→2CO₂/Pt (110) on the surface ofplatinum, obtained by photoemission electron microscopy on a surface of360×360 μm, testify that as a result of the reaction spiral figures areformed due by chemical turbulence.

The difference between “Fan-like” and spiral-shaped figures indicatesthat in these two experiments there are various manifestations of atomicreactions.

The arc-shaped figures observed during deformation of a solid, plantgrowth, and reactions that cause energy processes in the cells of livingorganisms are not identical to those characteristics of chemicalturbulence, not identical to vibrational chemical reactions ofBelousov-Jabotinsky.

The photos shown in FIG. 17 and FIG. 11, witness that X-rays are emittedfrom the ground or emitted from a deformed rail will spread over aconsiderable distance in the ground.

The anisotropy of the response of the materials with respect to thedirection of the acting force, as observed in the experiment with theI-beam (See FIG. 2A, 2B, and 2C), indicates the interaction ofelectromagnetic radiation with acoustic waves, leading to stimulatedBrillouin scattering.

The identity of the response of the material during its hardening anddestruction confirms the inventor's hypothesis that the energy ofphotons emitted during corrosion or spontaneously sufficient to locallymelt the nanoscale region.

Numerous arc-shaped X-ray sources shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 7, wereobserved in metals upon impact. The maximum number of such sources wasrecorded on a film located parallel to the direction of impact.

The disclosure of the mechanism of atomic processes caused by water-saltmetabolism in plants and cells of a living organism is of particularimportance. 14 photos from 22 shown in

FIGS. 18A-18N demonstrate the processes that occur during vaporcondensation at the border with ice (FIGS. 18A-18D), the boundarybetween liquid and ice. But on all photos not nanoscopic, butmacroscopic radiating areas are fixed. This fact suggests that in acertain area atomic reaction are identical.

Photographs (FIGS. 18A and 18B) differ little from one another, but therays fall on the surface of the films at an angle different by ˜40 °.This means that the radiation source is spontaneous. The energy of suchsources is partially absorbed and increases the temperature. The localtemperature is sufficient for a phase transition, but not sufficient forthe formation of cracks.

The fact that the interaction of water with organic and inorganicmaterials begins with the decomposition of water on the surface allowsthe use of pump-probe and plasmon resonance to study these processes.

The experimental study based on which an invention is proposed showsthat it can be implemented only on the basis of quantum mechanics, sincethe laws of classical mechanics are inapplicable when bodies approacheach other at a distance of 2 nanometers, due to the cloud between themelectrons emitted by each of the bodies.

The interaction of one electron cloud with other leads to a change inthe electric field, which is accompanied by a change in the magneticfield and the formation of electromagnetic waves. This hypothesis,formulated by Maxwell, is confirmed experimentally and forms the basisof classical electrodynamics.

Electromagnetic wave is considered in quantum electrodynamics as anenergy quantum, called a photon. The interaction between atoms is due tothe exchange of electrons and photons. In other words, the process ofdestruction originates in the nanodomain.

Electrification by friction, due to the displacement of the electroncloud together with the body from which they are emitted, is accompaniedby a discharge and a glow, which is called triboluminescence. Any typeof deformation causes a relative displacement of grains, twins, or otherfragments separated by a heterogeneity boundary. This fact is confirmedby research performed using electron microscopes and described in theliterature.

The intense emission of electromagnet waves, observed duringdeformation, indicates that it is due to the displacement and/orrotation of grains and twins. This phenomenon is called by the inventoras internal triboluminescence.

Particularly intense displacement or rotation of the grains or twinsoccurs upon impact, causing maximum acceleration and the maximum changein electrostatic induction, resulting in an electromagnetic pulse withmaximum energy.

The table below shows (See No. 24) that with five blows on samples fromiron alloys, 76 photographs were taken, both in the direction of impactand at different angles in planes drawn through the direction of impact.

Similarly, a single blow to the surface of the water (See No. 28) causedX-rays in all directions, recorded in 53 photographs.

A large number of photographs were obtained to demonstrate thephenomenon, it allows one to draw certain conclusions about defects thatare observed with dynamic processes caused by deformation, and withoutit.

Eight photos FIG. 20 (1-8) confirm the inventor's hypothesis about themain source of energy, the radiation of which is the cause of man-madedisasters [See: V. P. Rombakh, Damage of Metals: Atomic Nature,International Conference on Fatigue Damage of Structural Materials V,Hyannis, Mass., USA (2004), Poster No 1; V. P. Rombakh, Atom Parametersand Metal Properties, Logistics Capital, Inc. Edmonds WA, USA, pp 311].

The formation of cracks occurs in the area in which energy is absorbedand cannot be fixed. The luminescence that is observed is due tospontaneous radiation that occurred before or after the destruction,just as it was recorded from particles many times.

The experiment refutes the hypothesis of the decisive role of the tip ofa crack, which forms millions, or even billions, fractions of a second,the length of which depends on the energy absorbed by atoms; theaccumulation of energy occurs in an area outside the crack. A clearboundary between these two regions is fixed in all observed experiments.

FIG. 20H illustrates the case when there were atoms in the damaged area,the radiation of which occurred with a delay.

Photos shown in FIGS. 20A-20P, indicate that the number of types ofdefects that are detected by the shape of the radiator is limited. Theycan be classified and the effect on the material properties has beenestablished experimentally.

Atomic Reactions of Dynamic Processes

Quantum mechanics allows us to estimate the energy state of an atom orgroup of atoms in the local region of the metal in theory and modernexperimental base allows verification of this assessment. Therefore, byanalogy with fatigue, we introduce the notion of normal AN and morbid(pathological, painful) atoms AM. A morbid atom is an atom that haschanges that occurred in its electronic shell due to externalinfluences.

Assume that all atoms (ions), under which the property of the materialdoes not change a normal AN regardless of what they represent. Changingthe properties of the material means that there was a change ofparameters of a group of atoms.

We can describe all of the changes that occurred in the technicalelement of the structure or device using five atomic reactions:

1. AN+hv→AN*=AM (I). Electron transfer to the metastable level.

2. AN+hv₁→AM⁺+e⁻ (II). Forced additional ionization.

3. AN+e⁻→AM⁻+hv₂ (III). Ion and electron recombination.

4. AN*−hv₃→AN (IV). Spontaneous or stimulated transition of an electronfrom the metastable level.

5. AM⁺+e⁻→AN+hv₄ (V). Here AM⁺ is a morbid atom (ion) the charge ofwhich is increased; AM is a morbid atom whose charge has fallen.

Only the induced radiation of energy from the destruction domain issufficient to form a crack or fracture.

The law of destruction formulated by the inventor states: The loss ofintegrity of a solid and its destruction is the result of breaking thebond between atoms that have absorbed photons induced by local groups ofmetastable atoms, the excitation of which occurred as a result of theconversion of mechanical energy into electromagnetic and electromagnetenergy into mechanical.

Cracking or fracture occurs when, after the bond is broken, the atomsare removed to a distance at which a new equilibrium state occurs. Theformation of such a state is accompanied by acoustic oscillations, thefrequency of which decreases from 10¹³ to 10⁴ Hz.

The reality of such a mechanism confirms the latent radiation of X-raysfrom fragments formed after destruction. This fact indicates that notall the accumulated energy was consumed.

The advantage of a method based on the use of a phenomenon whose law isrevealed is due to the knowledge of cause-effect relationships. Empiricequations are proposed on the basis of statistical studies, but thisdoes not exclude the possibility of the realization of an unlikely eventat the beginning of operation, which leads to a disaster.

For example, the probability of an event due to which the shuttleChallenger crash occurred was estimated at 1:100,000. Such a lowprobability ruled out the possibility of a catastrophe during the entireservice life, but a catastrophe occurred.

The X-ray radiation caused by the deformation and the luminescencecaused by it are used for the first time as parameters on the basis ofwhich the technical state of the object under study is evaluated andpossible changes are made. The practical application of this phenomenonrequires preliminary experimental studies to assess the basic parametersof the material, which is the accumulated energy and the rate of itsaccumulation. Material wear, its critical state, reliability anddurability are not determined by strength, but by the ratio of energyaccumulation rate to its dissipation rate.

Experiments performed by the inventor show that the use of modernexperimental methods can reduce the testing time by tens of thousands oftimes, obtaining more accurate objective information about the processesleading to destruction.

The analysis of atomic reactions leading to destruction is possible onthe basis of quantum mechanics. This fact dictates the need forvoluntary or compulsory refusal to use erroneous methods in scientificand technical laboratories. This is the first step to solving theproblem of forecasting and preventing man-made disasters.

The theory of spontaneous and stimulated radiation was developed byEinstein. The creation of a maser and a laser was an experimentalconfirmation of this theory.

The spontaneous radiation photons, not absorbed by the material, leaveit. Measuring the intensity of spontaneous radiation Ie (v) allows us toestimate the accumulated energy U(v) and the rate of its accumulation,if the relationship between these parameters is established. The unitsof radiant intensity are watts per steradian. The total power (watts)emitted in a given frequencyU(v)=∫₀ ^(s) l _(e)(v)dvdΩ  (2),where the integral is taken over the closed surface S of the region inwhich the atoms emitting energy are.

The total energy radiated spontaneously by a local group of identicalN_(i) atoms in the frequency interval isU(v)=N _(i) A _(i) hvg(v)   (3)

Here A_(i)=Σ_(j)A_(ij) where A_(ij) is the Einstein coefficient, whichcharacterizes the probability of electron transition from level i tolevel j, which has dimension s⁻¹. A_(i) characterizes all transitionsfrom level i

Thus, if N_(i)(0) electrons were at the level i at the time t=0, thenthe number of electrons at this level decreases exponentiallyN_(i)=N_(i)(0)e^(−A) ^(i) ^(t) (4).

The possibility of applying Einstein's theory to analyze the processesof destruction is demonstrated by examples of solving specific problems.The lifetime of a domain of destruction is different from the lifetimeof the metastable state of an individual atom, just as the time ofexistence of a forest is different from the time of existence of aseparate tree. Wear and aging are due to an increase in the ratio of thenumber of morbid atoms to the number of normal atoms.

The process of energy accumulation in a substance during its deformationand pumping in a laser is carried out by an electromagnetic pulseexcited in a different way. This difference of principle does notmatter. Therefore, the application of an equation similar to theEinstein equation

$\begin{matrix}{{U_{2}(t)} = {{U_{2}(0)}{\exp( {D_{1}\frac{{hv}_{d}}{kT}t} )}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$is justified.

Here Di is the energy dissipation coefficient characterizing spontaneousradiation, having dimensions s⁻¹, v_(d) is the frequency of the photonstimulating the radiation of energy accumulated in the domain ofdestruction, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature.However, such a conclusion is provable via experimental verification. Inconnection with this, additional equations are proposed.

Basic Equations of Destruction Mechanics

The absence of a quantum theory of strength and destruction led to thefact that the physical measurable parameters, on the basis of whichequations can be proposed, are determined for the first time. Moderntechnical laboratories use instruments and methods for studying dynamicprocesses at the atomic, molecular, and nano level. Quantum mechanicsallows the use of material parameters based on the measurement ofspontaneous emission of atoms during operation. One of these parametersis wear due to the ratio of the number of morbid N_(m) atoms to thenumber of normal N_(n) atoms at each stage of the operation of anelement of structure or device.

The total binding energy of a local group of atoms of an element at theinitial time t=0 is due to the energy state of normal atoms. Theexperiment shows that the induced radiation occurs in a narrow frequencyinterval, at which the frequency, phase, polarization and direction ofthe photons emitted induced, coincide with the parameters of the photonthat stimulated the radiation. In this regard, we can restrict by onechemical element.

The energy of a local group of atoms, an element before the start ofoperation t=t₀, due to the energy of the bond ε_(b)=hv_(b) of atoms, isequal toU ₁(v, t ₀)=ε_(b) N _(n)(t ₀)   (6),where N_(n)(t₀) is the number of normal atoms.

The energy of the morbid atoms at this time is equal toU ₂(v, t ₀)=ε_(m) N _(m)(t ₀)   (7),where ε_(m)=hv_(m) is the energy of the morbid atom, N_(m)(t₀) is thenumber of atoms. The number of morbid atoms is extremely small,N_(m)«N_(n).

Experimental studies performed by S. P. Zhurkov showed that long-termstrength is well described by the exponent Experimental studiesperformed by S. P. Zhurkov showed that long-term strength is welldescribed by the exponentτ_(p)=τ₀ exp[(U ₀−γσ)/RT]  (8)for various crystalline and amorphous bodies. Here τ₀ is a constant,numerically close to the period of thermal oscillations, U₀ is thedestruction energy, close to the sublimation energy, γ is a structurecoefficient, having the dimension of volume, σ-mechanical stress, R isgas constant, T is absolute temperature.

Attempts to improve Zhurkov's formula were made repeatedly, but withoutsuccess, because the authors remained in the position of classicalmechanics, which does not allow one to understand the physical meaningof the structural coefficient, which has the dimension of volume.

The inventor proposes to treat this coefficient as the volume occupiedby morbid atoms, i.e. the volume of destruction domain V_(d). In thiscase, the Zhurkov's formula will be represented as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau_{p} = {D^{- 1}e^{\frac{U_{s} - {\sigma\; V_{d}}}{kT}}}},} & (9)\end{matrix}$where D is a parameter similar to the coefficients in the Einstein'stheory of spontaneous and stimulated emission, U_(s) is the sublimationenergy. This allows us to postulate that the number of morbid atomsgrows exponentially.

This allows us to postulate that the number of morbid atoms growsexponentiallyN _(m)(t)=N _(m)(t ₀)exp(A/DkT)−N _(m)(t ₀)exp(U ₂ /t _(c) DkT)   (10)Here A=U₂/t is the energy accumulation rate, B−DkT is its dissipationrate, Γ=A/B is the degree of wear.

The safe operation time tc is set during design. Based on this, thedegree of wear of wear and accumulated energy is estimated, lnN_(m)(t_(c))−lnN_(m)(0)=A/Dk_(B)T=U₂/t_(c)Dk_(B)T. lnN_(m)(t_(c))−lnN_(m)(0)=A/DkT=U₂/t_(c)DkT

Neglecting the number of morbid atoms at the initial moment, we get:U ₂(t _(c))/DkT=t _(c) ln N_(m)(t _(c))   (11).

However, the determination of the ultimate value of the energy U₂^(u)(t_(u)), which leads to destruction, is possible only byexperimental research, but the experiment should answer the question:when should the operation be terminated so it will be not too early, butnot too late.

The theory cannot answer this question, for an atomic reaction can bestimulated even by solar radiation, especially during a solar storm.

Determining the moment of termination of the facility or device becomesso important that such a decision must be justified by a comprehensiveexperimental study, providing a computer program with all the data todetermine when an emergency stop.

Ways to Implementation the Method

Maxwell's work [J. C. Maxwell, III. On the Equilibrium of ElasticSolids, (1850) pp. 31-'74, The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell,Edited by W. D. NIVEN, M. A., F. R. S.] still remains the only theory inmechanics, the equations in which are derived on the basis of experimentand suggested experimental methods for their use.

Maxwell investigated the relationship between the pressure at variouspoints in the body under mechanical action and the only optical responseknown at that time as the interference of polarized rays, putting thefoundations of photoelasticity. He proposed the equation

$\begin{matrix}{{I = {\omega \cdot \frac{Mb}{2\pi\; r^{2}}}},} & (12)\end{matrix}$which relates the optical response I to the moment of force M, whichdisplaces the upper surface of the hollow cylinder relative to the fixedinner surface by an angle δθ. Here b is the length of the cylinder, r isthe distance from the axis of the cylinder to any point of the solidpart of the cylinder. The article concludes with the conviction that thestudy of the relationship between mechanical action and optical responsefor various materials might lead to a more complete theory of doublerefraction, and extend our knowledge of the laws of optics. The creationof quantum electrodynamics, which is the most accurate physical theory,confirmed Maxwell's prediction, but it is not used to solve the problemsof strength and destruction.

Photoelasticity is used in strength mechanics as the main argument forthe introduction of stress intensity factors.

This conclusion is erroneous, because birefringence is due to theanisotropy of atoms or molecules associated with a change in orbital ormagnetic quantum numbers, which does not lead to a change in strengthproperties or destruction. Electro-optical and magneto-optic effects,leading to birefringence, were confirmed by Maxwell's prediction. Hediscovered an effect called dynamo-optic.

The use of the photoelasticity method simultaneously with the methodproposed in the invention will help clarify the role of luminous regionsand establish the coordinates of the domains of destruction usinganother Maxwell equation proposed in this paper:

$\begin{matrix}{{{\Psi( {x,y} )} = {{I\;\frac{1}{z}} = {{\omega( {q - p} )}\frac{1}{z}}}},} & (13)\end{matrix}$where I is the difference of retardation of the oppositely polarizedrays, and q and p the pressures in the principal axes at any point, zbeing the thickness of the plate.

The equations proposed by Maxwell for the bending of rods were tested byhim experimentally on samples of iron, brass, and glass with an accuracyof a fourth sign.

The X-ray radiation that occurs when a steel bar is destroyed is shownin FIG. 1D. This experiment, performed by the author of the proposedmethod, confirmed the idea of Maxwell, formulated by him in a letter toThomson (Lord Kelvin).

The theoretical prediction of quantum effects and experimentalconfirmation allows them to be used for experimental evaluation of theultimate value U₂ ^(u)(t_(u)), which is the main parameter on the basisof which the possibility of preventing catastrophic destruction isbased. This allows the method of assessing the potential energy ofdestruction of the elements of structure or device to be briefly calledMAPED.

Spontaneous emission of morbid atoms is not the only response todeformation. Additional information about atomic reactions in thedeformed material during operation is provided by luminescence; inexperimental studies, additional resonance methods are used, forexample, gamma resonance, stimulated Brillouin scattering, X-raydiffraction, X-ray spectroscopy, etc.

The implementation of the proposed method consists in establishing afunctional relationship between the radiation intensity and parameterscharacterizing an external effect, for calculating the accumulatedenergy and the rate of its accumulation with the maximum accuracy untila crack appears. A characteristic feature of the method is that it usesonly measured parameters, a crack forms in millionths of a second, andno radiation is observed at the moment of the formation of a crack.

For example, one has to research:

-   -   I_(e)h(v,t)=F₁(σN) until cracks appear under cyclic deformation        of stretching, bending, torsion, or shear, where σ is stress, N        is the number of external influences;    -   or I_(e)(v,t)=F₂(Sh₁) when an indenter is immersed, where S is        the indenter footprint, h₁ is the immersion depth;    -   the connection U₂(v,t)=F₃[I_(c)(v,t)] when a crack appears is        established only in an experimental study; in practice, an        extremely admissible value of energy U_(2 ex)(v, t_(ex))=U₂        ^(u)(t_(u)), is used, at which the operation is terminated and        the element is replaced.    -   an accurate definition of tex prevents catastrophe and provides        the ability to use the entire resource.

Quantum electrodynamics is an accurate physical theory, on the basis ofwhich processes of interaction of atoms can be explained. Everyinteraction of atoms is due by the exchange of electrons and photons.

The implementation of the method is based on a theoretical assessment ofthe potential energy, the accumulation of which is due to thedeformation. The equations used for the calculations contain only themeasured physical parameters characterizing the atomic reaction, and theproportionality coefficients found during experimental studies of thematerial.

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is the only objectivecharacteristic of the energy state of the atom. The frequency ofelectromagnetic radiation is measured with such an accuracy that is notavailable for measuring other parameters.

The induced radiation is due to the quantum mechanical properties oflocal groups of atoms. It occurs at a certain concentration ofmetastable atoms in a region, for example, in a grain or in a twin,which is a resonator having two parallel boundaries on whichelectromagnetic waves are reflected.

It is particularly important to note that the amplification ofelectromagnetic radiation can occur when a small number of atoms are inthe upper state in the local area, unlike in a laser. It is onlyimportant that there are more of them at the excited level than at thelower level. Energy absorption will be accompanied by breaking the bondbetween the number of atoms at which further exploitation is possible.This may be enough for high-power induced radiation to occur, but withlittle energy. This phenomenon is called in mechanics tolerance todamage, hidden or subcritical crack.

A similar phenomenon is possible with high concentration quenching ofluminescence or under the influence of impurities.

These phenomena allow reducing the rate of accumulation the energy,increase the rate of dissipation by changing the composition of thematerial, the shape of the product and stimulating the safe radiationfrom the destruction domain.

The safety of structures and devices cannot be achieved without statestandards, which must be changed due to the successes of science and newdiscoveries. US standards are becoming the basis of other countries'standards or are used unchanged, but a number of standards, such asE399, are based on the use of stress intensity factors. Such standardsare erroneous. The basis of the new standards should be the experimentsdescribed in the present invention or similar to it.

The implementation of the method does not present fundamentaldifficulties in any technical field, for the experimental equipment forstudying the S-N curves is supplemented by devices for studyingelectromagnetic, including X-ray, radiation, transmission, storage andanalysis of information. This change turns the S-N method into the U-Ncurve method. This is the second step to preventing the man-madedisasters.

Comparative Analysis of the Method Proposed in the Invention with Other

Example No. 1. A titanium alloy compressor disc with 12 bolts holes wastested in accordance with the FASTRAN II program [W. Z. Zhuang et al.,ICAS-98-5, 2, 3, A98-3162 (1998)]. The first crack on the edge of one ofthe holes was found after testing 8533 rpm. The disk was destroyed intofive fragments after testing at the speed of 9462 rpm. The photo abovedemonstrates four points in which three cracks meet (or diverge) and thefact that the crack discovered first grew in one and the oppositedirection. The main damage didn't occur in the area of the holes, thethickness of the metal in which is 3 mm, but in four points along therim, which is 15 mm thick. This fact allows us to conclude that thecause of the destruction was the distribution of energy, but notstresses, as the authors believe.

FIG. 20 confirms this conclusion. The graph above characterizes therelationship between the crack length and the kinetic energy of arotating disk. The proportionality ratio C is used instead of the momentof inertia. The maximum crack length is lowered to show a parabola.

One of the causes of erosion, corrosion, and even destruction, turbineblades, propellers is an increase in electron density on the outersurface caused by centrifugal force. Increased electron density leads tothe formation of AM morbid atoms, the bond between which is weakened.This defect is eliminated by creating an electrostatic field ofcounter-polarity.

Example No. 2. The crack to the right of the A40 AET rivet wasdiscovered when examining a panel of a riveting joint with an overlap ofthe fuselage of a Boeing 727-232 (B727) [See: B. R. Mosinyi, AircraftFuselage Damage Assessment In-Service Aircraft Fuselage Department,Drexel University (2007)] earlier than the crack to the left A40 FWD.The crack on the right, according to Griffiths theory, will reach thecritical value earlier than the crack on the left, but Mosinyi receivedone solution of the NASGRO equation for two cracks.

Analysis of the processes of formation of these cracks was performed bythe inventor using the equation relating changes in energy ΔU₂ withmetal thickness hi, binding energy ε_(b), lattice constant a, crackgrowth rate

$\frac{\Delta\; l}{\Delta\; N}$

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\; U_{2}} = {h_{1\;\mathcal{E}\; b}a^{- 2}{\frac{\Delta\; l}{\Delta\; N}.}}} & (14)\end{matrix}$

Note that the crack growth rate (measured parameter) in the equations offracture mechanics, including NASGRO, is used as a function of stressintensity factors and other parameters that cannot be measured.

The use of equation (14) for analyzing the A40 AET and A40 FWD crackformation processes is demonstrated in FIG. 21 in the form of graphsbased on the tables given Mosinyi, and the parameters of the fuselagemetal.

The maximums on the graphs indicate at the time when the energy wasemitted by some atoms, was absorbed by other atoms, between which thebond was broken; minima correspond to the period of energy accumulation.Particular attention should be paid to the minimum at N=141229 on theA40 FWD chart, which is actually located below the limits of the chart.The stored energy has a negative value of 12882 nanojoules. This minimumon the graph coincided with the maximum of A40 AET, whose energy of 5336nanojoules was radiated. The coincidence is conditional, since theextension of the crack occurred in a millionth of a second during theexperiment, which lasted 1176 hours.

Example No.3 Cracks growing towards each other were observed onnanofilms when irradiated with hydrogen and helium ions, when studyingthe riveted joint of the Boeing 727-232 (B727) fuselage and on thesurface of the earth. Crack length from a few nanometers to tens ofkilometers indicates that the nucleation and growth of cracks caused bya single mechanism which is independent of the size of the object. Thismechanism is due to the atomic reaction, in which the accumulation anddissipation of energy occurs and its induced radiation.

Two pairs of such cracks A22Right-A23Left and A23 Right-A24Left wasfound when examining the Boeing 727-232 (B727) fuselage riveted panel,[See: A. Ahmed, Initiation and Growth of Multiple-Site Damage in theRiveted Lap Joint of a Curved Stiffened Fuselage Panel: An Experimentaland Analytical Study, Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of DrexelUniversity 2007, pp.328.] The analysis of these cracks was limited to astatement of the fact.

The tables in the cited paper were used by the inventor to analyzeprocesses using equation (14). The graph of one of the cracks is shownin FIG. 22. Comparative analysis of the volume of information and itsquality using equations in which the crack length l is used as afunction of the number of cycles and other parameters, and equation (14)shows that a smooth crack growth does not represent the dynamicprocesses leading to destruction.

The minima characterizing the time of energy accumulation are replacedby maxima indicating the moment of induced radiation. Note that eventhough the measurements of crack elongation were carried out afterhundreds of hours, the intervals between the peaks differ by no morethan 10%.

However, the most important difference between MAPED and other methodsis the ability to analyze not only the accumulated energy, but also theaccumulation rate, which slowed down by 5 nJ/cycle between 13 and 14measurements, while it increased to 13.6 nJ between 14 and 15 nJ/cycle.

Analysis the Man-Made Disasters Causes

Problem No. 1. The railway accident (Hatfield, UK, 2000) is explained bythe fact that the rail under the train broke into 300 fragments on a35-meter section. Cracks were found on another 50-meter section. Thishappened despite the fact that, shortly before the accident, the railwas tested with ultrasound, but no defects were found. The cause of thecatastrophe is called “rolling contact fatigue” (defined as multiplesurface-breaking cracks). However, the nature of fatigue can beexplained using quantum mechanics.

The distinctive features of the analysis of this catastrophe are: theimpossibility of finding the cause, multiple homogeneous gaps in whichthe structure of the fracture surface of the fragments is different, ascan be seen in the photos given in the first report published in October2000. The surface of the fragment, characteristic of plastic fracture,was subjected to intensive corrosion, while the surface of the fragment,characteristic of brittle fracture, remained brilliant, as can be seenin the photographs published in the second report six years later.

Problem No. 2. The crash of the river bridge 1-35 W across Mississippi(USA, 2007) was due to the rupture of eight rivet holes of the U10gusset 40 years after its opening. The cause of the disaster, as definedby the State Commission, is a design error, which is that the thicknessof the leaflet is insufficient. The conclusion is made on the basis ofthe analysis performed using the finite element method.

A photo of the U10 Gusset plate taken after extracting a fragment fromwater, not published in a report, shows that the nature of the breakdownof four even-riveted holes differs from the breakage of four odd holes.The rupture line passed through the centers of all the holes, but theshape of the even holes remained unbroken and the edges shiny, while themetal near the odd holes was severely damaged and subject to intensecorrosion, just as happened with rail fragments.

Coincidence is natural, since dark areas have been observed in the studyof rail defects more than once, but the finite element method is purelymathematical, no containing physical parameters. This method did notreveal the damage that occurred during operation. The method proposed bythe invention makes it possible to record the intensity of the radiationof energy, which is the main physical parameter, and the position of theradiating objects in space. These physical parameters are used in acomputer program to calculate the accumulated energy and the rate of itsaccumulation.

Technological Process Control Capabilities

Problem No. 3. Quality control riveting holes of the fuselage and thewings of the aircraft

The study of defects arising in the rivet holes of the aircraft wings,made using an external source of X-rays [See J. Xu et al, AutomaticX-ray Crack Inspection for Aircraft Wing Fastener Holes, 2nd Int.Symposium on NDT in Aerospace 2010 Mo.5.A.4] revealed the damage of theholes edges, just as it was obtained using MAPED, but did not detecthidden defects between them.

Two plates of aluminum alloy imitated a rivet joint with an overlap ofthe aircraft fuselage. Eighteen holes were drilled in this joint. Onehole was intentionally damaged. 14 frames recorded the destruction ofthe hole and 11 defects between the holes. Studies of the fuselage haveshown that in these places pitting defects of corrosion and cracks grow,growing towards each other.

The study of defects arising in the rivet holes of the aircraft wings,made using an external source of X-rays revealed the damage of the holesedges, just as it was obtained using MAPED, but did not detect hiddendefects between them.

Eleven frames were obtained when installing 18 rivets, at which onedefect was fixed, made intentionally.

Problem No. 4. Hot and cold chinks in cast aluminum

An analysis of the publications showed that attempts to understand themechanism of the formation of hot and cold cracks in cast aluminum,while remaining in the position of classical mechanics, and creating acomputer program to prevent them, were unsuccessful.

The experimental study, made by the inventor, of hot and cold cracksformation in silumin and aluminum alloy 7075-T651 during solidificationof the ingot and cooling of the samples at a temperature gradient of 120K/cm showed that the mechanism of cracking is identical. A computerprogram for predicting the occurrence of hot or cold cracks is createdon the basis of measurements the intensity of spontaneous X-rayradiation and luminescence intensity caused by radiation in variousareas of the cooling melt or ingot.

Problem No.5 High-entropy alloys

High-entropy alloys consisting of five to six chemical elements, theconcentration of each of which is from 5 to 35%, have high hardness,corrosion resistance, heat resistance, thermal and mechanical wearresistance. It is assumed that the unique properties of these materialsare due to the successful combination of ductility and brittleness. Theauthors of the publications, offering different compositions, try toestablish the natural influence of any physical parameter on the alloyproperty. The number of combinations is unlimited, but the trial anderror method are not effective.

The electron backscattering method is one of the most effective forstudying high-entropy alloys using electron microscopes. The study ofFe-30Mn-10Co-10Cr-0.5C (at. %). Alloy grains. [See: M. Wang et al., ActaMaterialia 147 (2018) 236-146], showed that all metals form localregions whose color is different. This allows you to determine thechemical element whose atoms form a destruction domain and replace itwith another analog.

The method of backscattering of electrons, like methods based ontransmission, gives distorted information in cases where the materialunder study is deformed, because atoms in this case are subject to twoelectromagnetic effects. This distortion is especially great when theenergy of a photon intended for research is comparable or exceeds thephoton energy, which is the cause for the atomic reaction.

The method proposed in this invention is free from this disadvantage.

The fact that atoms of a single chemical element form a local nano-sizedarea in the grain makes it possible to experimentally estimate to whatextent this concentration affects the rate of energy accumulation andits dissipation and change it to extend the time of safe operation.

Theoretical and experimental methods developed to improve the quality ofa laser help to develop methods for reducing the rate of energyaccumulation and increasing the rate of dissipation. Exact determinationof the frequency of the stimulating signal allows you to stimulate theradiation before it becomes dangerous.

Measuring the Intensity of Spontane Radiation

Measurement of the intensity of spontaneous electromagnetic radiation ofa monitored object (MO) is shown in FIG. 22. The part of the object, thedamage of which leads to a catastrophe, is called the structural element(SE). For example, the self-loosening of the nuts on the point 2182 Acaused a catastrophe (Potters Bar, UK, 2002). The number of structuralelements n is due to the safety of MO operation. The signal from thesensor, for example, Sen 1, enters the converter Con 1 and is converted,encoded and transmitted to the TR 1 transmitter, then by wires orwithout them transferred to the computer (COMP).

Signal coding eliminates the possibility of unwanted interference andunwanted reading.

The computer program analyzes the data obtained, estimates theaccumulated energy, its accumulation rate, compares with the limitvalues obtained as a result of the experimental study, and the controlconvector (CC), in case of danger, through the TR 2 transceiver and theRS receiver using wires or through air is transmitted an alarm andshutdown alarm (ASD). The limit values may be referred to as “criticalvalues.” The measured value of accumulated energy (which may beexpressed in various ways using various proxies, including intensity)may determined by the computer program to be indicative of potentialstructural failure in various ways, such as by reaching a thresholdrelative to the critical value, accelerating at a threshold rate towardthe critical value, or in other ways. The threshold or other parametersfor determining whether measurements are indicative of potentialcatastrophic failure may be dependent on context and may be determinedexperimentally. For example, statistical analysis can be performed toset the parameters such that measurements are determined to beindicative of potential structural failure if there is a certainprobability of failure based on experimental measurement, where theprobability can be set dependent on context (e.g., the potential fordisaster). For example, the probability may be low in such cases wherestructural failure can lead to catastrophe (e.g., for an airplane) andhigher when structural failure has less potential for catastrophe (e.g.,in contexts where there is little chance for harm to humans orlarge-scale property damage). The parameters may also be set based onthe availability of redundant systems that operate in case of failure,and based on other factors.

The universality of the method proposed in the invention is due to thepossibility of continuous non-destructive remote monitoring of atomicprocesses in all objects, regardless of their size, composition,structure, nature of external influences.

The main objective of the invention is to predict the critical state ofthe object under study and to prevent its destruction. The method isapplicable to both experimental studies and facilities that areoperated.

The maximum effect from the implementation of the MAPED will becomepossible when a functional connection between the areas emitting energydue to the deformation and the areas accumulating it is established. Thesearch for such a connection is possible not only on laboratory models,but also on real technical objects.

Numerous experiments, the purpose of which is shown in the table above,allow us to propose a program of experimental studies for theimplementation of the proposed method.

Problem No. 6. The next panel of the Boeing 727-232 (B727) fuselage istested on the same experimental equipment as the previous ones, butusing a different program. Electromagnetic radiation that occurs in theprocess of deformation, is fixed on the film and digital sensors. Thesignals from sensors are converted and transmitted by wire or withoutthem to a computer containing a program for measuring the intensity,storing information and analyzing it. The sensors, in an embodiment, areplaced on structures of the plane using adhesive stickers (e.g.,stickers as part of logos and other decorative aspects of the exteriorof the plane) to reduce air resistance caused by the stickers.

The nature of the test samples varies to reduce their number, reducetime and increase efficiency. For example, the number of tests of thefuselage panel and the number of cycles before a crack appears decreasesdue to an increase in the stress.

Refusing to use the S-N method does not exclude the possibility of usingthe results obtained by this method. The tables obtained during thestudy can be used to clarify the time of safe operation, residual lifeand degree of wear. Only on the basis of experimental studies can theextent to which formula 12 b gives more accurate results than formula 12a, but note that formula 12 b can be replaced by formula

$\begin{matrix}{\tau_{p} = {D^{- 1}e^{\frac{U_{A} - {V_{d}\sigma^{2}}}{EkT}}\mspace{14mu}{or}}} & ( {12c} ) \\{{\tau_{p} = {D^{- 1}e^{\frac{U_{A} - {V_{d}\sigma^{2}}}{GkT}}}},} & ( {12d} )\end{matrix}$

sproposed by the inventor.

Here, E is the modulus of elasticity, G is the shear modulus.

The volume of the domain of destruction can be calculated on the basisof experimental data, if they are sufficient for this.

Problem number 7.

Find the volume Va of the domain of destruction.

We use the experimental study which are given by Atre et al. [W. S. Atreet al. Finite Element Simulation of Riveting Process and Fatigue Lives,DOT/FAA/AR-07/56, V.3, 2009, pp. 166]

Initial data:

metal M

crack length l

crack depth h₁

bond energy ε_(b)

lattice constant a

spontaneous emission photon frequency v.

Solution

The sequence of mathematical transformations is given below.

The crack area is S−lh₁, the number of cells on it is

${n = {\frac{S}{a^{2}} = \frac{{lh}_{1}}{a^{2}}}},$the energy radiated to form a crack is

${U_{2} = {\frac{{lh}_{1}}{a^{2}}ɛ_{b}}},$the number or morma atoms emit her:

$N_{m} = {\frac{{lh}_{1}}{a^{2}} \cdot {\frac{ɛ_{b}}{hv}.}}$

If there is one morbid atom in each unit cell, then the total volume is

$V_{d} = {{\frac{{lh}_{1}}{a^{2}} \cdot \frac{a^{3}ɛ_{b}}{hv}} = {{alh}_{1}{\frac{ɛ_{b}}{hv}.}}}$A numerical solution of the problem can be obtained after experimentallydetermining the frequency of the photon of spontaneous radiation.

The main task of the experimental study is to find the relationshipbetween the accumulated energy and the intensity of spontaneousradiation, which is measured experimentally by N_(m)=CI_(e)(v,t).

Problem number 8. Preventing railway disasters

The safety of the operation of the rail track today is based on the useof mainly two non-destructive control methods: ultrasonic and magnetodynamic, the main disadvantage of which is the fact that they aredesigned to search and analyze cracks and other defects that areharbingers of catastrophic destruction, but not the cause. Thewavelength of eddy currents and ultrasound, the minimum value of whichis 1 millimeter, does not allow to detect micron cracks, while X-rayradiation from the material allows you to set the moment of nucleationof the nano-sized crack.

The ability to implement the method is due to the use ofelectromagnetic, including X-ray, radiation caused by the deformation,which is measured with maximum accuracy, data is transmitted by wire orwithout them at maximum speed using modern communication systems,including space.

It is known that the cause of a train accident is rail damage thatoccurs not only under the locomotive and wagons or after passing thetrain, but even before it. The inventor witnessed the prevention of acatastrophe that could have occurred on Aug. 31, 1978 at Grebyonkastation (Ukraine), when the rails curved in front of the passengertrain, moving at 15 m/s. Locomotive was stopped five meters beforedamage.

The photos shown in FIGS. 12A-12L were taken when the locomotive stoppedthree meters from the film. Consequently, radiation occurred before therail subjected to intense deformation.

FIGS. 11C-11P illustrate the energetic connection between the rails,while FIGS. 11A, 11B, 11Q, and 11R illustrate the displacement of railfastenings.

Experimental research indicates that the energy radiated in one area asa result of mechanical action spreads in the rail to a considerabledistance in the form of electromagnetic waves, causing acoustic waves inits path.

The fact that the driver, seeing the movement of the rails, managed tostop the train, allows predicting the formation of dangerous defectsbefore approaching them.

The intensity of the radiation recorded in all the photos shown in FIGS.12A-12L indicate that such radiation will be observed from a moredistant source.

Problem number 8.1. Rail testing using locomotive, control experiment

An experimental test of this hypothesis was performed at the NorthwestRailway

Museum (Snoqualmie, WA) on ½ mile (800 m) railway track. Theexperimental scheme is shown in FIG. 24.

Two containers with photographic film were placed simultaneously on thesurface of the rail head and the foot in the interval A_(x0).Locomotive, located at point xi at a distance of 20 feet, began to movetowards point B, but stopped at point x_(d), located at a distance of ¼mile from point x₁. The containers with the film were replaced withsimilar ones, after which the locomotive began to move to the point Xf,located at a distance of ¼ mile (400 m) from the point x₁. Thecontainers were replaced a second time after the locomotive reachedpoint x_(n) and began braking. The seventh and eighth films fixed thestart in the opposite direction for 15 seconds.

The results of the experiment in which 132 photographs were takenillustrate 24 (three from each film) shown in FIG. 19. Analysis ofphotographs shows that the film recorded radiation from a distance of ½mile. This conclusion is the main argument for preventing a catastrophe.We see in FIGS. 19B and 19C “Fan-like” radiation; thin lines and wideareas similar to the crack shown in FIGS. 19A, 19N, 19M, 19Q, 19S, and19W, etc.

At the same time, we are witnessing a paradoxical phenomenon thatrequires an explanation. Repeated photographing of different objects inone frame distorts the image, but this did not happen, because the imageis clear, like at a single blow. This fact is due to the high speed ofthe electromagnetic signal and the constant distance between the wheelsof the locomotive and the synchronous effect.

Rail track damage is monitored using a device that measures theintensity of electromagnetic, including X-ray, radiation due todeformation, and/or the intensity of luminescence excited by thisradiation, transmit data using radio signals to the spacecraft, whichdetermines the coordinates of a point from which radiation occurred, andrelays this information to the server, which analyzes, stores thisinformation and makes decisions. The server may be located locally(e.g., on the train) or remotely, accessible over a wide area network,such as the Internet and/or a cellular network. Decisions may be, forinstance, to alert an engineer (driver), transmit signals to causebrakes to engage, and/or perform other mitigating actions, which may beprogrammed to occur according to different contexts, which may be basedon the level of danger encountered and/or potential catastrophes thatfeasibly could occur.

The device unit containing the sensors for measuring the intensity I islocated as close as possible to the side surface of the rail at thepoint of contact of the locomotive wheel and rail, but without touchingit so that it is not damaged during movement. The unit is rigidlyattached to the frame of the locomotive. Two sensors are placedvertically through the contact at a maximum distance from each otherfrom the rail head along the web, including the foot, the other twosensors are located on either side of the vertical line.

The possibility of positioning the sensors above the radiation surfacehas been tested experimentally for two cases. The container with thefilm was fixed at two extreme points under the 6 mm thick steel platelocated horizontally, so that the central part of the container was 26mm away from the plate; three blows with the tip of the ax were appliedat different points on the upper surface. 12 photographs were takenthroughout the film. Three photos of the middle section are shown inFIGS. 17G-17I.

A similar plate and container were arranged vertically. The impacts withan ax and a hammer were applied to the butt surface. 10 photos wererecorded, three photos of the middle part of the film are shown in FIGS.17J-17L.

22 of these photographs show that the radiation is spontaneous and itsintensity can be measured on the horizontal and vertical surfaces of therail with repeated exposure.

Problem number 8.2. Research of radiation sources and determination oftheir intensity

In one example embodiment, the minimum number of sensors is eight. Theyare located four to the left and four right of the locomotive to scaneach rail at four points simultaneously. Denote the sensors located inthe block to the left α and β, while the right are γ and δ.

Non-framed photographic films in containers, opaque to visible andultraviolet rays, are placed on the vertical (web) and horizontal (foot)surface of the rail between points x₀ and x₁ in front of the locomotive.

Let me denote the intensity measured by the sensors in the horizontalplane on the left I_(ah)(x)I_(βh)(x), and I_(γh)(x), I_(δh)(x) on theright and the vertical plane on the left I_(av)(x), I_(βv)(x) andI_(γv)(x), I_(δv)(x) on the right respectively. The peculiarity of themethod designed to prevent fracture allows determination of the fractureenergy only in an experimental study. This predetermines the fact thatthe most effective combination of using sensors can be proposed only onthe basis of an experiment.

Simultaneously with the four-sensor unit, a three-sensor unit is tested,scanning the surface of the head, web and foot. The method does notlimit the number of options, but the advantage sets the experiment.

Experiment No. 8.1. The locomotive is located at point A to beginresearch. It moves forward until the rear wheels pass over the films.Sensors scan rails previously undeformed by the locomotive, whilephotographic films record radiation. Films are removed and thelocomotive returns. New films are located just like before. Note thatvarious embodiments may use digital imaging techniques to avoid the useof film and improve practicality. Generally, photographic sensors may beused in place of films and data may be obtained digitally.

Experiment No 8. 2. The locomotive passes over the films and stops.Films are replaced by sensors on the rails, the number and place ofwhich is determined by the experimenter.

Such an arrangement of sensors and photographic films allows obtainingmaximum information about the sources of radiation of energy forcomparing the results of research obtained by photographic and sensorymethods during the initial study.

Of particular interest are both energy-emitting and dark areas similarto those recorded in photos: FIGS. 12H-12L; FIGS. 14G-14I; and FIGS.15A, 15J, and 15K.

FIGS. 11A-11R show that the energy radiated during the deformation ofone rail is transferred to another. Neglect of this energy withoutspecial experimental evidence is unacceptable.

Measuring the intensity of electromagnetic radiation at eight points onthe rails allow to reveals sources of energy whose stimulated emissioncan lead to the formation of dangerous defects, using the fact that thesignal intensity at each point of the rail is related to the intensityof radiation at other points where all wheels of the locomotive impacton rails.

However, FIGS. 12-15 show that the total impact of the wheels isaccompanied by the formation of a limited number of local luminous anddark areas. The continuous luminous region was formed only on therailway sleeper, as shown in FIGS. 11A-11R.

This fact indicates the possibility of estimating the accumulated energyusing a number of equations.

A system of possible equations for experimental studies based on datafrom eight sensors is proposed:

1.1. U_(ah=)ΨI_(av)(x), 1.2. U_(βv=)ΨI_(βv)(x), 1.3. U_(γv=)ΨI_(γv)(x)1.4. U_(δv=)Ψ_(δv)(x), 1.5. U_(ah=)ΨI_(ah)(x),

1.6. U_(βh=)ΨI_(βh)(x), 1.7. U_(γh=)ΨI_(γh)(x), 1.8. U_(δh=)ΨI_(δh)(x).

Here Ψ is the coefficient of proportionality.

The number of equations and combinations of them is increasing to studythe changes caused by the repeated effects of the wheels of thelocomotive, the cars following it and repeated testing.

The distance x₁-x_(n), after which the intensity of the pulses emittedat the locomotive location is insufficient for identification by fixedsensors, is used to establish the sensors at point B, is used todetermine the position of the symmetric point B and the similararrangement of the sensors.

The intensity of the signals as the locomotive moves from point xn topoint B increases. The experimental section A↔B is used in the forwardand reverse direction the required number of times.

Thus, the experimenter receives information on the processes ofaccumulation and radiation of energy throughout the AB section using thenon-destructive method for the time that the locomotive passes frompoint A to point B.

The differentiation of hazardous and safe areas is of paramountimportance.

Dangerous areas are those in which energy is accumulated. Such a regionis detected by an increase in the intensity of spontaneous radiation.However, if the intensity of spontaneous radiation does not increase,this does not mean that accumulation does not occur. Therefore,additional, for example, X-ray, research is needed.

Experiments performed with the locomotive are complemented byexperiments with the train, using sensors not only on the locomotive andrails, but also on the cars, including ultrasonic wagons, flaw detectorson eddy currents.

Experiment No. 8.3, designed to determine the zone of emergency brakingin front of a sudden dangerous defect in the track, is performed only atthe experimental railway section.

Point x_(d) is located from point A equipped with sensors, at such adistance Ls that the locomotive is equipped with sensors also, movingfrom point B to point A with speed v, can stop at a safe distance frompoint A during emergency braking.

Impacts inflicted on rails at point A are recorded by sensors located onthe rail and locomotive but with a delay

${{\Delta\; t} = \frac{L_{s}}{c}},$where c is the speed of electromagnetic waves. The width of the pulse isdue to the lifetime of the metastable atoms and the delayed radiationfrom fragments that were formed during cracking and destruction.

Comparison of the functions U_(i)=ψI_(i)(x), which characterizes theenergy accumulated as a result of the impact, and U_(l)=ψI_(i)(x), whichcharacterizes the energy recorded by the locomotive, allows you to setthe distance at which the locomotive should begin emergency braking sothat it is safe.

Selection of Sensors

The choice of sensors is determined by three factors: the maximumsensitivity at the frequency of the signal stimulating the emission ofmetastable atoms, location, shape and size. The frequency of the signalis due to the atomic number of the atom.

The sensors are located at the points of maximum absorption thestimulated radiation.

An analysis of the causes of disasters has shown that the definition ofsuch places is particularly important. The possibility of detecting suchplaces is shown: in the aluminum alloy in FIG. 1B; in cobblestone FIG.1C; in the rail FIGS. 12H-12L, FIGS. 15A, 15J, and 15K; in the frame orwheels of the locomotive FIG. 16H.

Recommendations for searching for particularly dangerous defects inrails are given by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) [See: TrackInspector Rail Defect Reference Manual, Juley 2015, Revision 2].However, MAPED can detect the onset of defects at an early stage. We canassume that the total impact is due to the center of gravity, sincesignals from different wheels come to sensors with such a small-timeinterval, during which the sensor cannot resolve it. But all thehypotheses can be confirmed or refuted only by experiment.

Modern companies in the United States, creating sensors and equipmentfor them, such as Canon Industrial Sensors and Delphi Precision Imaging,are able to ensure the implementation of the method in all sections ofthe industry, crop production and medicine.

Problem No. 8.3. Evaluation of critical energy

Sensors located on the rail at the point of impact send signals U_(i)^(n)=ΨI_(i) ^(n)(N), caused by repeated impacts, which are fixed by thesensors. A computer program explores the relationship of energies insuccessive hits

$\begin{matrix}{{Z_{2} = {\frac{U_{i}^{2}}{U_{i}^{1}} = {\frac{I_{i}^{2}(2)}{I_{i}^{1}(1)}\mspace{14mu}\ldots}}}\mspace{14mu},{Z_{n} = {\frac{U_{i}^{n}}{U_{i}^{n - 1}} = \frac{I_{i}^{n}(N)}{I_{i}^{n - 1}( {N - 1} )}}},{Z_{n + 1} = {\frac{U_{i}^{n + 1}}{U_{i}^{n}} = \frac{I_{i}^{n + 1}( {N + 1} )}{I_{i}^{n}(n)}}},} & (15)\end{matrix}$

which characterizes the ratio of the rate of accumulation of energy tothe rate of its dissipation.

Changes in this relationship allows you to set the moment of formationof hidden cracks. The appearance of larger cracks is controlledadditionally by ultrasound or eddy currents.

The critical energy U₂ ^(c) is calculated according to the equationU ₂ ^(c)=ε_(b) Sa ⁻²   (16),where ε_(b) is the binding energy of atoms, S is the area of the formedcrack, a is the crystal lattice constant.

Comparison of the functions U_(i)=ΨI_(i)(x), which characterizes theenergy accumulated at the impact site, and U₁=ψI₁(x), whichcharacterizes the energy recorded by the locomotive, allows you to setthe distance at which the locomotive should begin emergency braking,which will be safe.

It should be noted that the intensity of spontaneous radiation dependson the direction. The total radiation power is estimated using theUlbricht integration ball, in which the source is a luminescent screensurrounding the deformed body.

An important condition for the use of MAPED is the identification ofluminous and dark areas in order to search for the destruction domain.One of the methods for its detection is the residual radiation of thesurface of destruction. The lifetime of such atoms in the optical rangeis 1.6-0.3 μs. Radiation in the X-ray range is detected with theintroduction of the indenter, as was confirmed by the inventor.

The decision on the practical application of the method is applied onthe basis of the established State Standard.

The main advantage of MAPED compared with other methods is theobjectivity of the assessment of the technical condition of structuresand devices based on experimental energy measurements. The secondadvantage is efficiency.

For example, calculations of the strength of the rail according to GOSTof Russia R 51685-2013 are performed on the basis of at least threetests, each of which includes at least five million cycles with afrequency of 5-50 Hz. Therefore, testing one rail takes from 80 to 800hours, whereas testing two rails 1/2-mile-long each was completed in 15minutes.

The main danger is that the standards of other countries are also basedon the use of stress intensity factors, but other equations and evenpolynomials are proposed. State standards, equations in which are basedon a hypothesis, refuted by experiment, should be replaced.

The equations obtained in the study of rails using MAPED can be appliedto all extended objects, such as support beams, ropes, bridges,regardless of their shape and composition.

Problem number 9. Prediction of the earthquakes and tsunamis

Earthquakes are the object, the prevention of which remains anunresolved problem, but earlier prediction is particularly important forsaving people's lives.

The table above shows that ten experimental series were performed by theinventor to show that the energy storage mechanism, the emission ofwhich leads to earthquakes, and behind it the tsunami, does not differfrom the mechanism of the metal cracking. There were investigateddeformation and destruction of solids: flagstone, granite, marble andcobblestone;

deformation of steam, water and ice; deformation under the friction ofaluminum on asphalt, the propagation of electromagnetic waves in theground. 176 photos show that X-rays were observed in all cases.

Attempts to use electromagnetic radiation to predict earthquakes,including via satellites, have been made repeatedly, [See: TE. BleierU.S. Pat. No. 6,873,265B2.] A distinctive feature of the proposed methodis due to the use of X-ray radiation. The advantage of the earthquakeprediction method proposed in this invention is the use of highpenetrating power of X-rays, high sensitivity to all types ofdeformation, including internal friction and the phenomenon ofself-emission transparency.

Electromagnetic radiation sensors, including those in the X-ray range,are located at any available depth of the seas and oceans, mines, andwells. Electromagnetic signals by wire or without them are transmittedto the station, including through spacecraft.

Sensors located at three points make it possible to calculate thecoordinates of the radiation location of the signals. Sensors locatednear volcanoes in high tectonic zones make it possible to find afunctional connection between small changes in X-ray intensity andearthquakes and predict them with higher accuracy.

The high penetrating power of X-rays and the high energy of atomicprocesses in the earthquake source and the Earth's core make it possibleto fix these signals using sensors.

Problem 10. Pathology and aging of plants and living organs

The solution of these two problems has always been and remains importantfor humanity. Each discovery in experimental and theoretical physics isused in other natural sciences, but the discovery of galvanicelectricity and the law of conservation of energy are made in medicine.X-ray radiation from plants and human organs, demonstrated in 102photographs, expands the field of practical application ofelectromagnetic radiation in biology and medicine.

Discovering of self-emissive transparency in metal and wood indicatesthe possibility of such a mechanism in the organs of a living organism.This conclusion is based on the identity of atomic reactions, whichresult in the formation of luminous arcuate regions, shown for example,in 16 photographs with examples of phase transformations of water, humanorgans and metal deformation. Iron corrosion is accompanied by theformation of Fe⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions. G. N.

Petrakovich expressed the idea [See: Biofield Without Secrets, Moscow,“Public Benefit” 2009, pp. 305 (In Russian)], that transitions ofFe²⁺↔Fe³⁺ electrons occur at a frequency of 6 attohertz, which is athousand times higher than the frequency of a femtosecond laser, withthe help of which self-induced transparency is observed.

The problem of energy in mitochondria is one of the most important notonly in biology, but also in technology, in order to understand themechanism of energy concentration and develop similar devices. Theefficiency of mitochondria greatly exceeds the efficiency of generatorscreated by man. The study of the energy processes of plants, animalcells and humans by a non-invasive method allows us to understand themechanism of this phenomenon and create a similar one.

In the preceding and following description, various techniques aredescribed. For purposes of explanation, specific configurations anddetails are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding ofpossible ways of implementing the techniques. However, it will also beapparent that the techniques described below may be practiced indifferent configurations without the specific details. Furthermore,well-known features may be omitted or simplified to avoid obscuring thetechniques being described.

Note that, in the context of describing disclosed embodiments, unlessotherwise specified, use of expressions regarding executableinstructions (also referred to as code, applications, agents, etc.)performing operations that “instructions” do not ordinarily performunaided (e.g., transmission of data, calculations, etc.) denote that theinstructions are being executed by a machine, thereby causing themachine to perform the specified operations.

FIG. 26 is an illustrative, simplified block diagram of a computingdevice 2600 that can be used to practice at least one embodiment of thepresent disclosure. In various embodiments, the computing device 2600may be used to implement any of the systems illustrated and describedabove. For example, the computing device 2600 may be configured for useas a data server, a web server, a portable computing device, a personalcomputer, or any electronic computing device. As shown in FIG. 26, thecomputing device 2600 may include one or more processors 2602 that, inembodiments, communicate with and are operatively coupled to a number ofperipheral subsystems via a bus subsystem. In some embodiments, theseperipheral subsystems include a storage subsystem 2606, comprising amemory subsystem 2608 and a file/disk storage subsystem 2610, one ormore user interface input devices 2612, one or more user interfaceoutput devices 2614, and a network interface subsystem 2616. Suchstorage subsystem 2606 may be used for temporary or long-term storage ofinformation.

In some embodiments, the bus subsystem 2604 may provide a mechanism forenabling the various components and subsystems of computing device 2600to communicate with each other as intended. Although the bus subsystem2604 is shown schematically as a single bus, alternative embodiments ofthe bus subsystem utilize multiple buses. The network interfacesubsystem 2616 may provide an interface to other computing devices andnetworks. The network interface subsystem 2616 may serve as an interfacefor receiving data from and transmitting data to other systems from thecomputing device 2600, such as sensor data, control signals (e.g., toapply brakes to a locomotive), transmitting information (e.g., messageindicating warnings about structural failure, and other examples). Insome embodiments, the bus subsystem 2604 is utilized for communicatingdata locally and/or over a network.

In some embodiments, the user interface input devices 2612 includes oneor more user input devices such as a keyboard; pointing devices such asan integrated mouse, trackball, touchpad, or graphics tablet; a scanner;a barcode scanner; a touch screen incorporated into the display; audioinput devices such as voice recognition systems, microphones; and othertypes of input devices. In general, use of the term “input device” isintended to include all possible types of devices and mechanisms forinputting information to the computing device 2600. In some embodiments,the one or more user interface output devices 2614 include a displaysubsystem, a printer, or non-visual displays such as audio outputdevices, etc. In some embodiments, the display subsystem includes acathode ray tube (CRT), a flat-panel device such as a liquid crystaldisplay (LCD), light emitting diode (LED) display, or a projection orother display device. In general, use of the term “output device” isintended to include all possible types of devices and mechanisms foroutputting information from the computing device 2600. The one or moreuser interface output devices 2614 can be used, for example, to presentuser interfaces to facilitate user interaction with applicationsperforming processes described and variations therein, when suchinteraction may be appropriate. For example, a display interface mayprovide a graphical representation of a warning to an operator, atechnician, or other employee to indicate results of measurements takenin accordance with embodiments described herein and conclusions derivedtherefrom.

In some embodiments, the storage subsystem 2606 provides acomputer-readable storage medium for storing the basic programming anddata constructs that provide the functionality of at least oneembodiment of the present disclosure. The applications (programs, codemodules, instructions), when executed by one or more processors in someembodiments, provide the functionality of one or more embodiments of thepresent disclosure and, in embodiments, are stored in the storagesubsystem 2606. These application modules or instructions can beexecuted by the one or more processors 2602. In various embodiments, thestorage subsystem 2606 additionally provides a repository for storingdata used in accordance with the present disclosure. In someembodiments, the storage subsystem 2606 comprises a memory subsystem2608 and a file/disk storage subsystem 2610.

In embodiments, the memory subsystem 2608 includes a number of memories,such as a main random access memory (RAM) 2618 for storage ofinstructions and data during program execution and/or a read only memory(ROM) 2620, in which fixed instructions can be stored. In someembodiments, the file/disk storage subsystem 2610 provides anon-transitory persistent (non-volatile) storage for program and datafiles and can include a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive along withassociated removable media, a Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)drive, an optical drive, removable media cartridges, or other likestorage media. Memories of the system 2600 may be non-transitory andstore instructions that are executable by one or more processors tocause the system to perform operations herein, such as applying logic tosensor data to infer conclusions to cause further operations (e.g.,providing messages indicative of such conclusions, updating a graphicaluser interface, transmitting control signals to cause operation ofanother system (e.g., a brake subsystem, a warning alarm, and/or othersuch system). The logic can be in various forms, such as a rules engine,a decision tree, a neural network or other machine learning model,and/or other such computer-executable applications of logic to data.

In some embodiments, the computing device 2600 includes at least onelocal clock 2624. The at least one local clock 2624, in someembodiments, is a counter that represents the number of ticks that havetranspired from a particular starting date and, in some embodiments, islocated integrally within the computing device 2600. In variousembodiments, the at least one local clock 2624 is used to synchronizedata transfers in the processors for the computing device 2600 and thesubsystems included therein at specific clock pulses and can be used tocoordinate synchronous operations between the computing device 2600 andother systems in which the computing device is used. In anotherembodiment, the at least one local clock 2624 is a programmable intervaltimer. In an embodiment, the computing device 2600 may communicate witha sensor 2630. In an embodiment, the sensor 2630 may be attached to avehicle 2626. In another embodiment, the vehicle may possess a frame2628 to which a sensor 2630 may be mounted.

The computing device 2600 could be of any of a variety of types,including a portable computer device, tablet computer, a workstation, orany other device described below. Additionally, the computing device2600 can include another device that, in some embodiments, can beconnected to the computing device 2600 through one or more ports (e.g.,USB, a headphone jack, Lightning connector, etc.). In embodiments, sucha device includes a port that accepts a fiber-optic connector.Accordingly, in some embodiments, this device is that converts opticalsignals to electrical signals that are transmitted through the portconnecting the device to the computing device 2600 for processing. Dueto the ever-changing nature of computers and networks, the descriptionof the computing device 2600 depicted in FIG. 26 is intended only as aspecific example for purposes of illustrating the preferred embodimentof the device. Many other configurations having more or fewer componentsthan the system depicted in FIG. 26 are possible.

The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in anillustrative rather than a restrictive sense. However, it will beevident that various modifications and changes may be made thereuntowithout departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in theclaims. Likewise, other variations are within the scope of the presentdisclosure. Thus, while the disclosed techniques are susceptible tovarious modifications and alternative constructions, certain illustratedembodiments thereof are shown in the drawings and have been describedabove in detail. It should be understood, however, that there is nointention to limit the invention to the specific form or forms disclosedbut, on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications,alternative constructions and equivalents falling within the scope ofthe invention, as defined in the appended claims.

The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in thecontext of describing the disclosed embodiments (especially in thecontext of the following claims) is to be construed to cover both thesingular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated or clearlycontradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including”and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning“including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. The term“connected,” when unmodified and referring to physical connections, isto be construed as partly or wholly contained within, attached to orjoined together, even if there is something intervening. Recitation ofranges of values in the present disclosure are merely intended to serveas a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate valuefalling within the range unless otherwise indicated and each separatevalue is incorporated into the specification as if it were individuallyrecited. The use of the term “set” (e.g., “a set of items”) or “subset”unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context, is to be construed asa nonempty collection comprising one or more members. Further, unlessotherwise noted or contradicted by context, the term “subset” of acorresponding set does not necessarily denote a proper subset of thecorresponding set, but the subset and the corresponding set may beequal.

The use of the phrase “based on,” unless otherwise explicitly stated orclear from context, means “based at least in part on” and is not limitedto “based solely on.”

Conjunctive language, such as phrases of the form “at least one of A, B,and C,” or “at least one of A, B and C,” unless specifically statedotherwise or otherwise clearly contradicted by context, is otherwiseunderstood with the context as used in general to present that an item,term, etc., could be either A or B or C, or any nonempty subset of theset of A and B and C. For instance, in the illustrative example of a sethaving three members, the conjunctive phrases “at least one of A, B, andC” and “at least one of A, B, and C” refer to any of the following sets:{A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}. Thus, such conjunctivelanguage is not generally intended to imply that certain embodimentsrequire at least one of A, at least one of B and at least one of C eachto be present.

Operations of processes described can be performed in any suitable orderunless otherwise indicated or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.Processes described (or variations and/or combinations thereof) can beperformed under the control of one or more computer systems configuredwith executable instructions and can be implemented as code (e.g.,executable instructions, one or more computer programs or one or moreapplications) executing collectively on one or more processors, byhardware or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the code can bestored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in the formof a computer program comprising a plurality of instructions executableby one or more processors. In some embodiments, the computer-readablestorage medium is non-transitory.

The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”)provided, is intended merely to better illuminate embodiments of theinvention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the inventionunless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should beconstrued as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to thepractice of the invention.

Embodiments of this disclosure are described, including the best modeknown to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations ofthose embodiments will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in theart upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilledartisans to employ such variations as appropriate and the inventorsintend for embodiments of the present disclosure to be practicedotherwise than as specifically described. Accordingly, the scope of thepresent disclosure includes all modifications and equivalents of thesubject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted byapplicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-describedelements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the scopeof the present disclosure unless otherwise indicated or otherwiseclearly contradicted by context.

All references, including publications, patent applications, andpatents, cited are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extentas if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to beincorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method, comprising: measuring an intensity ofelectromagnetic signals emitted from a structure with a sensor;calculating an energy stored in a portion of the structure based on themeasured intensity; performing a comparison of the energy stored in theportion of the structure with a critical value for the structure; andindicating a potential failure of the structure based on the performedcomparison.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the electromagneticsignals comprise x-rays.
 3. The method of claim 1, further comprisingmounting the sensor to a vehicle traversing the structure.
 4. The methodof claim 3, wherein the vehicle comprises a locomotive or a rail car. 5.The method of claim 1, further comprising mounting the sensor to thestructure.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the structure comprises acomponent of an aircraft.
 7. The method of claim 6, further comprisingsecuring the sensor to the component of the aircraft by a decal of theaircraft.
 8. A system, comprising: a sensor; one or more processors; andmemory including executable instructions that, if executed by the one ormore processors, cause the one or more processors to: measure anintensity of electromagnetic signals emitted from a structure with thesensor; calculate an energy stored in a portion of the structure basedon the measured intensity; perform a comparison of the energy stored inthe portion of the structure with a critical value for the structure;and indicate a potential failure of the structure based on the performedcomparison.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the executableinstructions that cause the one or more processors to indicate thepotential failure further cause the one or more processors to update auser interface.
 10. The system of claim 8, wherein the executableinstructions that cause the one or more processors to indicate thepotential failure further cause the one or more processors to transmit amessage that causes a device to brake.
 11. The system of claim 10,further comprising a vehicle.
 12. The system of claim 8, furthercomprising a vehicle onto which the sensor is mounted.
 13. The system ofclaim 8, further comprising a vehicle having a frame onto which thesensor is mounted to monitor the structure during an operation of thevehicle.
 14. A non-transitory computer-readable storage mediumcomprising executable instructions that, if executed by one or moreprocessors of a computer system, cause the one or more processors to atleast: measure an intensity of electromagnetic signals emitted from astructure with a sensor; calculate an energy stored in a portion of thestructure based on the measured intensity; perform a comparison of theenergy stored in the portion of the structure with a critical value forthe structure; and indicate a potential failure of the structure basedon the performed comparison.
 15. The non-transitory computer-readablestorage medium of claim 14, wherein the electromagnetic signals comprisex-rays.
 16. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim14, wherein the instructions cause the one or more processors toindicate the potential failure if the calculated energy stored in theportion of the structure reaches a threshold, the threshold being lessthan the critical value.
 17. The non-transitory computer-readablestorage medium of claim 14, wherein the instructions cause the one ormore processors to indicate the potential failure by transmitting asignal that causes a vehicle to change an operation.
 18. Thenon-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 17, wherein thesignal that causes the vehicle to change the operation causes thevehicle to brake.
 19. The non-transitory computer-readable storagemedium of claim 14, wherein the executable instructions that cause theone or more processors to indicate the potential failure cause the oneor more processors to update a user interface to present informationindicative of the potential failure.